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"A Comparison of Systems"

by A. A. Hodge (1823-1886)

From Outlines of Theology (Chapter Six)

14. Give an outline of the main features of the Arminian System.

DIVINE ATTRIBUTES.

1st. They admit that vindicatory justice is a divine attribute, but hold that it is relaxable, rather optional than essential, rather belonging to administrative policy than to necessary principle.

2d. They admit that God foreknows all events without exception. They invented the distinction expressed by the term Scientia Media to explain God’s certain foreknowledge of future events, the futurition of which remain undetermined by his will or any other antecedent cause.

3d. They deny that God’s foreordination extends to the volitions of tree agents and hold that the eternal election of men to salvation is not absolute, but conditioned upon foreseen faith and obedience.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

1st. Moral character cannot be created but is determined only by previous self-decision.

2d. Both liberty and responsibility necessarily involve possession of power to the contrary.

3d. They usually deny the imputation of the guilt of Adam’s first sin.

4th. The strict Arminians deny total depravity, and admit only the moral enfeeblement of nature. Arminius and Wesley were more orthodox but less self-consistent.

5th. They deny that man has ability to originate holy action or to carry it on in his own unassisted strength — but affirm that every man has power to co-operate with, or to resist “common grace” That which alone distinguishes the saint from the sinner is his own use or abuse of grace.

6th. They regard gracious influence as rather moral and suasory than as a direct and effectual exertion of the new creative energy of God.

7th. They maintain the liability of the saint at every stage of his earthly career to fall from grace.

SOTERIOLOGY.

1st. They admit that Christ made a vicarious offering of himself in place of sinful men, and yet deny that he suffered either the literal penalty of the law, or a full equivalent for it, and maintain that his sufferings were graciously accepted as a substitute for the penalty.

2d. They hold that not only with respect to its sufficiency and adaptation, but also in the intention of the Father in giving the Son, and of the Son in dying, Christ died in the same sense for all men alike.

3d. That the acceptance of Christ’s satisfaction in the place of the infliction of the penalty on sinners in person involves a relaxation of the divine law.

4th. That Christ’s satisfaction enables God in consistency with his character, and the interests of his general government, to offer salvation on easier terms. The gospel hence is a new law, demanding faith and evangelical obedience instead of the original demand of perfect obedience.

5th. Hence Christ’s work does not actually save any, but makes the salvation of all men possible — removes legal obstacles out of the way, does not secure faith but makes salvation available on the condition of faith.

6th. Sufficient influences of the Holy Spirit, and sufficient opportunities and means of grace are granted to all men.

7th. It is possible for and obligatory upon all men in this life to attain to evangelical perfection — which is explained as a being perfectly sincere — a being animated by perfect love — and doing all that is required of us under the gospel dispensation.

8th. With respect to the heathen some have held that in some way or other the gospel is virtually, if not in form, preached to all men. Others have held that in the future world there are three conditions corresponding to the three great classes of men as they stand related to the gospel in this world — the Status Credentium; the Status Incredulorum; the Status Ignorantium.

15. Give a brief outline of the main features of the Calvinistic System.

THEOLOGY.

1st. God is an absolute sovereign, infinitely wise, righteous, benevolent, and powerful, determining from eternity the certain futurition of all events of every class according to the counsel of his own will.

2d. Vindicatory Justice is an essential and immutable perfection of the divine nature demanding the full punishment of all sin, the exercise of which cannot be relaxed or denied by the divine will.

CHRISTOLOGY.

The Mediator is one single, eternal, divine person, at once very God, and very man. In the unity of the Theanthropic person the two natures remain pure and unmixed, and retain each its separate and incommunicable attributes distinct. The personality is that of the eternal and unchangeable Logos. The human nature is impersonal. All mediatorial actions involve the concurrent exercise of the energies of both natures according to their several properties in the unity of the single person.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

1st. God created man by an immediate fiat of omnipotence and in a condition of physical, intellectual, and moral faultlessness, with a positively formed moral character.

2d. The guilt of Adam’s public sin is by a judicial act of God immediately charged to the account of each of his descendants from the moment he begins to exist antecedently to any act of his own.

3d. Hence men come into existence in a condition of condemnation deprived of those influences of the Holy Spirit upon which their moral and spiritual life depends.

4th. Hence they come into moral agency deprived of that original righteousness which belonged to human nature as created in Adam, and with an antecedent prevailing tendency in their nature to sin which tendency in them is of the nature of sin, and worthy of punishment.

5th. Man’s nature since the fall retains its constitutional faculties of reason, conscience, and free-will, and hence man continues a responsible moral agent, but he is nevertheless spiritually dead, and totally averse to spiritual good, and absolutely unable to change his own heart, or adequately to discharge any of those duties which spring out of his relation to God.

SOTERIOLOGY.

1st. The salvation of man is absolutely of grace. God was free in consistency with the infinite perfections of his nature to save none, few, many, or all, according to his sovereign good pleasure.

2d. Christ acted as Mediator in pursuance of an eternal covenant formed between the Father and the Son, according to which he was put in the law-place of his own elect people as their personal substitute, and as such by his obedience and suffering he discharged all the obligations growing out of their federal relations to law-by his sufferings vicariously enduring their penal debt by his obedience vicariously discharging those covenant demands, upon which their eternal well-being was suspended — thus fulfilling the requirements of the law, satisfying the justice of God, and securing the eternal salvation of those for whom he died.

3d. Hence, by his death he purchased the saving influences of the Holy Spirit for all for whom he died. And the infallibly applies the redemption purchased by Christ to all for whom he intended it, in the precise time and under the precise conditions predetermined in the eternal Covenant of Grace — and he does this by the immediate and intrinsically efficacious exercise of his power, operating directly within them, and in the exercises of their renewed nature bringing them to act faith and repentance and all gracious obedience.

4th. Justification is a Judicial act of God, whereby imputing to us the perfect righteousness of Christ, including his active and passive obedience, he proceeds to regard and treat us accordingly, pronouncing all the penal claims of law, to be satisfied, and us to be graciously entitled to all the immunities and rewards conditioned in the original Adamic covenant upon perfect obedience.

5th. Although absolute moral perfection is unattainable in this life, and assurance is not of the essence of faith, it is nevertheless possible and obligatory upon each believer to seek after and attain to a full assurance of his own personal salvation, and leaving the things that are behind to strive after perfection in all things.

6th. Although if left to himself every believer would fall in an instant, and although most believers do experience temporary seasons of backsliding, yet God by the exercise of his grace in their hearts, in pursuance of the provisions of the eternal Covenant of Grace and of the purpose of Christ in dying, infallibly prevents even the weakest believer from final apostasy.

Author

A.A. Hodge (1823-1886), Professor in Systematic Theology at Princeton Seminary from 1877 until his death in 1886, urged that the aim of every Christian teacher should be to produce a vitalizing impression — giving students ‘theology, exposition, demonstration, orthodoxy, learning, but giving all this to them warm.’ ‘He taught the knowledge of God,’ said one of his hearers, ‘with the learning of a scholar and the enthusiasm of a loving Christian’. These qualities not only crowded his classrooms, they also led to frequent appeals for the delivery of popular lectures. This article is taken from his, Outlines of Theology, first published in 1860 by the Banner of Truth Trust.

NOTE: The above is from a longer work which can be found here. Although we all have our opinions, the final authority must be Scripture and what it does/does not support. Therefore you are encouraged to read the above with Bible in hand, and to thoroughly apply the Berean to not only these but all spiritual matters.

The following article is rather long, but well worth the read. I thought about posting selected portions, but it deserves to be presented in it’s entirety.

POSTMODERN TRUTH VERSUS BIBLICAL TRUTH

by D. Massimo Lorenzini

INTRODUCTION

The concept of truth has always been bitter-sweet in the mouths of humans ever since the Fall into sin (Gen 3). Man cannot live with it or without it. Aristotle opened his book Metaphysics by stating that "man by nature desires to know." Much later the poet and play write T. S. Eliot noted, "Humankind cannot bear much reality."⁽¹⁾ Pilate demonstrated the attitude of fallen men toward truth when Jesus stood on trial before him: "Therefore Pilate said to Him, ‘So You are a king?’ Jesus answered, ‘You say correctly that I am a king. For this I have been born, and for this I have come into the world, to testify to the truth. Everyone who is of the truth hears My voice.’ Pilate said to Him, ‘What is truth?’ "(John 18:37-38a).⁽²⁾ And with that, Pilate apparently walked away not waiting for an answer.

The Apostle Paul declared that all men have an awareness of God from the creation (Rom 1:20) and innately know right from wrong (Rom 2:14-15). But in spite of this fact, men continue to "suppress the truth in unrighteousness" (Rom 1:18). This suppression of the truth is clearly evident in the currently predominant worldview of postmodernism.

The current culture has experienced a paradigm shift from modernism to postmodernism. Postmodern thought is a rejection of absolute, objective truth. One author described the changes this way: "Permanence and solidity in social structures are now bygone commodities, not to mention abiding values and the concept of truth. The new colossus is characterized by opposition to epistemology, realism, essentialism, all forms of foundationalism, transcendental arguments and standpoints, truth as correspondence, canonical descriptions, final vocabularies, and meta-narratives. The new cognitive atmosphere is charged with pessimism regarding the possibility of modernity’s Holy Grail, scientia and veritas."⁽³⁾

While postmodernism is pessimistic with regard to the concept of truth, Bible-believing Christians lay claim to possession of true truth. Indeed, the entire message and hope of the gospel lies in its truthfulness. If the gospel is not true, or as Paul stated, if there is no resurrection, "we are of all men most to be pitied" (1 Cor 15:19).

The question, therefore, is whether or not postmodernism’s concept of truth is valid in light of the claims of God’s Word, the Bible and what is the biblical concept of truth. After surveying the rise of postmodernism, an understanding of the biblical concept of truth will be presented.

THE RISE AND INFLUENCE OF POSTMODERNISM

"Wither is God," he [the madman] cried. "I shall tell you. We have killed him–you and I. All of us are his murderers. But how have we done this? How were we able to drink up the sea? Who gave us the sponge to wipe away the entire horizon?…Are we not straying through an infinite nothing? Do we not feel the breathe of an empty space? …Do we not smell anything yet of God’s decomposition? Gods too decompose. God is dead. God remains dead. And we have killed him. How shall we, the murderers of all murderers, comfort ourselves? …I come too early," he said then; "my time has not come yet. This tremendous event is still on its way, still wandering–it has not yet reached the ears of man."⁽⁴⁾

The strangely prophetic words of Friedrich Nietzsche, written over a hundred years ago, have now reached the "ears of man." In the words of James Sire, "The acknowledgment of the death of God is the beginning of postmodern wisdom."⁽⁵⁾

But the beginning of postmodern wisdom is the end of wisdom. Defining postmodernism is difficult; to do so will require some background.

Five major philosophical ontologies or worldviews exist. Ontology answers the question: What is reality? Before the modern era the three major ontologies were idealism, naturalism, and realism. Proponents of these three ontologies believe that there is an essential reality. That is, reality can be defined as to its essence and thus objective truth exists. Idealists such as Plato, Augustine, Descartes, Kant, Hegel, and Brightman believed that the essence of reality is immaterial ideas, forms, essences, that transcend the material world which is but a copy or a transient shadow of the really real. Naturalists such as Thales, Hobbes, Newton, Marx, and Sagan believed reality is defined by the natural, sensible world. Realists such as Aristotle and Aquinas believed reality is both material (physical) and immaterial (spiritual).

The modern era witnessed the development of the next two ontologies, pragmatism and existentialism, which believe that no essential reality exists (more specifically that ontology is unnecessary and misguided, respectively) and thus no objective truth. Pragmatists such as James and Dewey believed that reality is what works in empirical (physical) experience. Existentialists such as Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Sartre believed that reality is chosen by the individual. That means, basically, that reality is whatever the individual wants it to be. Individuals must create their own meaning because life does not come with any meaning in itself.

Premodern thought, governed largely by theism (the worldview centered on God as defining reality), addressed what is there (ontology). Modern thought, governed by Enlightenment naturalism, addressed how to know what is there (epistemology). Postmodern thought, governed by pragmatism and existentialism, addresses how language functions to construct meaning itself. In other words, a shift has taken place in "first things" from being to knowing to constructing meaning.⁽⁶⁾

James Sire shed additional light on the shift from premodern to modern to postmodern thinking:

Two major shifts in perspective have occurred over the past centuries: one is the move from the "premodern" (characteristic of the Western world prior to the seventeenth century) to the "modern" (beginning with Descartes [1596-1650]); the second is the move from the "modern" to the "postmodern" (whose first major exponent was Friedrich Nietzsche in the last quarter of the nineteenth century). Take the following as an example of these shifts. . . . There has been a movement from (1) a "premodern" concern for a just society based on revelation from a just God to (2) a "modern" attempt to use universal reason as the guide to justice to (3) a "postmodern" despair of any universal standard for justice. Society then moves from medieval hierarchy to Enlightenment democracy to postmodern anarchy.⁽⁷⁾

Postmodernism has its roots in modernism which began in the 1700s with the Enlightenment. Rene Descartes is seen as the first modern philosopher. Gene Edward Veith observed,

In the 1700s the progress of science accelerated so rapidly that it seemed as if science could explain everything. . . . This age of reason, scientific discovery, and human autonomy is termed the Enlightenment. Its thinkers embraced classicism with its order and rationality (although their version of classicism neglected the supernaturalism of Plato and Aristotle). However, they lumped Christianity together with paganism as outdated superstitions. Reason alone, so they thought, may now replace the reliance on the supernatural born out of the ignorance of ‘unenlightened’ times.⁽⁸⁾

So with the Enlightenment man became the center of the universe rather than God. The modern era left little or no meaning in life. In order to overcome this Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) developed his philosophy of existentialism. He called for living by faith, not reason. David Breese summarized, "He [Kierkegaard] had the problem of involvement in dead religion. He went to the Danish Church in Denmark, a cold brownstone place, but he wasn’t satisfied. So he began to think — ‘Reality is not something outside ourselves. Truth is not something objective. Reality is within ourselves. Reality is an encounter, reality is involvement, reality, is what happens to you, and if it doesn’t happen to you, forget it. It’s not true.’ He is what we call a subjectivist, actually a super-subjectivist."⁽⁹⁾

On the heels of Kierkegaard came Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900), the philosopher whose words began this chapter. Nietzsche realized that the people of Europe lived as though God were dead, so he made atheism the cornerstone of his existential philosophy. The news that "God is dead" has now reached the "ears of man."

James Sire characterized postmodernism as follows:

(1) There has been a shift in "first things" from being to knowing to constructing meaning. . . . (2) The truth about the reality is forever hidden from us. All we can do is tell stories [narratives]. . . . (3) All narratives mask a play for power. Any one narrative used as a metanarrative is oppressive. . . . (4) Human beings make themselves who they are by the languages they construct about themselves. . . . (5) Ethics, like knowledge, is a linguistic construct. Social good is whatever society takes it to be. . . . (6) The cutting edge of culture is literary theory.⁽¹⁰⁾

Postmodern thought has greatly influenced contemporary culture. The hallmark of postmodern thought is the death of truth. Don Matzat noted, "The only absolute truth that exists in the postmodern mentality is that there is no such thing as absolute truth, and as far as the postmodern scholar is concerned, that is absolutely true."⁽¹¹⁾

The self-contradiction is obvious but the postmodernist is not concerned with logic or truth. Everyone has his or her own "truth" and the height of arrogance is to say that one’s "truth" is actually the truth. Nothing frightens the postmodernists more than a "fundamentalist" claim to absolute truth which they view as nothing more than an attempt to oppress those who disagree. So with the rise of postmodernism came ideas such as political correctness, tolerance, moral relativism, multiculturalism, new age spirituality, religious syncretism, empowerment of minorities, denigration of white European males, and homosexual rights. Every area of society has been touched by postmodernism. Health care, literature, education, history, psychotherapy, law, science, and religion are all mutating under the influence of postmodernism.⁽¹²⁾

Because of their claim to an exclusive metanarrative (worldview), conservative, Bible- believing Christians are frequently exempted from society’s tolerance. Christians are not only ignored by the popular culture, they are increasingly singled out for ridicule and outright bashing by the kinder, gentler postmodernists. The postmodernist’s "tolerance" masks the reality of an underhanded power play.

The postmodern era is a dangerous time because of the loss faith in the concept of objective truth, especially in the realm of ideologies. Civilization is shaped by ideas, and the loss of truth as the fixed reference point by which civilization can be guided leads to moral chaos. One can only imagine what kinds of evil moral relativism will lead to in the years to come.

So much for postmodernism; what concept of truth does the Bible present and what hope does that truth hold for society?

THE BIBLICAL CONCEPT OF TRUTH

Although the Bible does not present a systematic account of the nature of truth, a biblical understanding of truth can still be gleaned just as other doctrines which are not explicitly presented such as the trinity–by induction. The principles gathered by inductive Bible study can then be subjected to logical deductions which would provide a systematic understanding of the biblical concept of truth.

The basic principles concerning the nature of truth in the Bible can be reduced to the following two over-arching propositions: (1) Truth is theocentric and absolute. (2) Truth is correspondence to reality.⁽¹³⁾ From these two propositions, a number of logical deductions (philosophical implications) can be made. However, for lack of space, these logical deductions will not be made here.

The Old Testament

The most common Old Testament word for truth is emet and its cognate emunah. Both words are derived from aman (cf. English "amen"), which in its basic stem means "to confirm, support, or uphold." The basic root is firmness or certainty. The noun emet (the most common form of the root aman) most commonly denotes speaking the truth as opposed to falsity or falsehood (Josh 9:15-16, 19; 1 Kings 17:24; Isa 48:1; 59:13-14; Jer 5:1, 3; 9:3, 5-6); thus, emet is "what is true" or "that which corresponds to the facts." This term is also used in relation, either directly or indirectly, to God: God’s Word (Ps 119:142, 151, 160; Dan 10:21); the "ways" of God toward man (Josh 10:21; 21:14; 1 Kings 2:4; Ps 26:3; 86:11; 91:4; Isa 38:3); the way man should in turn relate to God and to others (Ex 18:21; Neh 7:2; Ps 15:2; Zech 8:16).

More significantly, emet is also used to portray the character of God (Ex 34:6; Ps 31:5; 40:10-11; 57:10; 86:15; 89:14; Isa 65:16; Zech 7:8). Emunah (usually translated "faithfulness") also occurs frequently as an attribute of God (Dt 32:4; Ps 33:4; 36:5; 40:10; 92:2; 143:1)

Jack B. Scott concluded his study of emet: "As we study its various contexts, it becomes manifestly clear that there is no truth in the biblical sense, i.e., valid truth, outside God. All truth comes from God and is truth because it is related to God."⁽¹⁴⁾ Truth in the Old Testament, then, is (1) a characteristic of God, also to be reflected by His people, and (2) facticity, or correspondence to reality. Truth is theocentric and corresponds to things as they really are.

The New Testament

In the New Testament, the word for truth is aletheia. Aletheia is used in contrast to falsehood or falsity and to denote that which corresponds to reality, or the facts of the matter (John 8:44-47; Rom 1:25; 3:4-8; 9:1; Acts 26:24-25; 2 Cor 13:8). The New Testament presents a similar concept of truth as the Old Testament. In fact, the New Testament writers even imported the Hebrew aman to the Greek amen which occurs 129 times in the New Testament.

The New Testament writers’ usages of the word aletheia are (1) as truth in general as revealed in the Law or creation (Rom 1:18, 25; 2:8, 20); (2) as a reference to the gospel (Col 1:5; 2 Thess 2:10, 12-13; 1 Pet 1:22; 2 Pet 2:2); (3) as truth as opposed to lying or deception (2 Cor 4:2; Gal 4:16; 1 Tim 2:7; 1 Pet 5:12; 2 Pet 2:22); (4) as an attribute of God (Rom 1:25; Eph 4:21; Titus 1:1-2; Jas 1:18); (5) in keeping with the Old Testament principle of the imitation of God, truth characterizing human relationships with God and one another (1 Cor 5:8; 13:6; 2 Cor 6:7; Gal 5:7).

The Apostle John often saw truth as the opposite of lies and falsehood (John 5:33; 8:44; 16:7; 1 John 1:6-10; 2:21-24; 4:6; 2 John 1:2, 7; 3 John 1:12). John also understood truth like the Old Testament writers who incorporated the concept of "doing" the truth. The disciple of Christ is one who "practices the truth" (John 3:21). Truth here is not only the opposite of falsehood but also a way of life that is aligned with the nature and Word of God. Another aspect of truth that John brought out is the concept that truth is a revelation from God. In opening his Gospel, John wrote that Jesus, the incarnate Logos, is described as "full of grace and truth" (John 1:14). It has been understood that in verses 14 and 17 John is hearkening back to Exodus 34:6 where God revealed Himself to Israel as "The Lord, the Lord God, compassionate and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in lovingkindness (hesed) and truth (emet)."⁽¹⁵⁾ This phrase (lovingkindness and truth) occurs frequently in the Old Testament and expresses Yahweh’s covenant loyalty and unchanging truth. "What then is the point of John’s connection with Exodus 34? Revelation. The incarnation of God in the Logos is presented as the supreme disclosure of the Lord who revelaed himself to Moses in the giving of the Law at Sinai (1:17). Jesus shows us God as he really is."⁽¹⁶⁾ Jesus is both the Messenger and the Message of truth (John 14:6).

Possibly John’s greatest contribution to the biblical concept of truth is his perception that all truth is rooted in God. Truth is thus absolute and theocentric. God’s ontological reality is ultimate reality. No standards exist outside of God by which to evaluate His reality. As ultimate reality, God is the only absolute standard by which all truth and falsehood, light or darkness, and right or wrong are measured in this world (John 5:53; 8:31-32, 42-47). Moreover, both Jesus and the Holy Spirit are said to be "the truth" (14:6, 16-17; 15:26; 1 John 5:7). So the Father is truth, the Son is truth, and the Holy Spirit is truth. The locus of truth is the Triune God. God is truth.

Finally, concerning the evidences for the biblical concept of truth, the Word of God itself is truth. Jesus plainly stated, "Your word is truth" (John 17:17b). John declared that the apostolic witness was "the spirit of truth" as opposed to the "spirit of error" (1 John 4:6). God’s Word is reliable because it is rooted in and ruled by the divine absolute. His Word corresponds to reality because reality is measured by God, the ultimate reality.

Thus, the New Testament concept of truth conforms to that of the Old Testament and is predicated upon it. Truth originates in God, who is the source and measure of all truth. Truth is opposite to falsehood and lies. Truth is that which corresponds to things as they really are. Truth can be witnessed to, stated propositionally, and tested. Truth is reliable and right because it is valid; it is from God, measured by God, rooted in God, and required by God. Truth finds its absoluteness in God, that is, because God is absolute, truth is absolute. Because God is authentic, real, genuine, and perfect reality, all truth corresponds to reality.

CONCLUSION

The following conclusions may be made concerning the biblical concept of truth: (1) God is truth. Truth is ontologically rooted in God. Truth is an unchanging, fixed, absolute attribute of God. Truth is thus unchanging, fixed, and absolute. (2) Truth is correspondence to reality. Truth is what is true as opposed to falsehood and lies. (3) Truth is propositional and verifiable. (4) Truth is revealed and therefore objective, knowable, and subject to systematization. Because God’s Word was spoken and written, it may be taught and learned. (5) Truth may be personally practiced inasmuch as truth determines what is right and wrong, moral and immoral, righteous and unrighteous, real and unreal. The person who is faithful to God is so because he or she is "true to God," that is, ideologically and morally aligned to the true God, the God of truth.

The biblical concept of truth may thus be summarized by two overarching propostions: (1) Truth is theocentric and therefore absolute. (2) Truth is correspondence to God-interpreted reality.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Barentsen, Jack. "The Validity of Human Language: A Vehicle for Divine Truth." Grace Theological Journal 9:1 (Spring 1988): 21-43.

Beckwith, Francis J. and Gregory Koukl. Relativism: Feet Firmly Planted in Mid-Air. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Books, 1998.

Breese, David. Seven Men Who Rule the World From the Grave. Oklahoma City: The Southwest Radio Church, 1980.

Bultmann, Rudolf. "ajlhvqeia." In Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, Edited by Gerhard Kittel, 1:232-247. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1964.

Bush, L. Russ. "Knowing the Truth." Faith and Mission 11:2 (Spring 1994): 3-13.

Cabal, Ted. "An Introduction to Postmodernity: Where Are We, How Did We Get Here, and Can We Get Home?"The Southern Baptist Journal of Theology 5:2 (Summer 2001): 4-18.

Crump, D. M. "Truth." In Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, Edited by Joel B Green, Scot McKnight, and I. Howard Marshall. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 1992.

Danker, Frederick William, ed. "ajlhvqeia." In A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 3d ed., 42-43. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 2000.

Groothius, Douglas. Truth Decay: Defending Christianity Against the Challenges of Postmodernism. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2000.

Hille, Rolf. "Transition from Modernity to Post-Modernity: A Theological Evaluation." Evangelical Review of Theology 25:2 (2001): 113-129.

Kallenberg, Brad. "The Gospel Truth of Relativism." Scottish Journal of Theology 53:2 (2000): 177-211.

Leffel, Jim and Dennis McCallum. "The Postmodern Challenge: Facing the Spirit of the Age." Christian Research Journal (Fall 1996): 35-40.

Lewis, Gordon R. and Bruce A. Demarest. Integrative Theology: Historical, Biblical, Systematic, Apologetic, Practical. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 1996.

Matzat, Don. "Apologetics in a Postmodern Age." Issues, Etc. Journal 2:5 (Fall 1997): 3-18.

McCallum, Dennis, ed. The Death of Truth. Minneapolis, Minn.: Bethany House Publishers, 1996.

Parker, James III. "A Requiem for Postmodernism–Wither Now?" The Southern Baptist Journal of Theology 5:2 (Summer 2001): 50-61.

Scott, Jack B. "Amen." In Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, Edited by R. Laird Harris, Gleason L. Archer Jr., and Bruce K. Waltke. Chicago, Ill.: Moody, 1990.

Sire, James W. The Universe Next Door: A Basic World View Catalog, 3d ed. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1997.

Spicq, Ceslas. "ajlhvqeia." In Theological Lexicon of the New Testament, Edited and Translated by James D. Ernest, 1:66-86. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers, 1994.

Thiselton, A. C. "Truth." In The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology, Edited by Colin Brown, 3:874-902. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 1986.

Veith, Gene Edward Jr. Postmodern Times: A Christian Guide to Contemporary Thought and Culture. Wheaton, Ill.: Crossway Books, 1995.

Weston, Paul. "Truth, Subjectivism and the Art of Apologetics." Anvil 16:3 (1999): 173-185.

White, James Emery. What is Truth: A Comparative Study of the Positions of Cornelius Van Til, Francis Schaeffer, Carl F. H. Henry, Donald Bloesch, and Millard Erickson. Nashville, Tenn.: Broadman and Holman, 1994.

NOTES

1. T. S. Eliot, Murder in the Cathedral (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1963), 69; quoted in Douglas Groothius, Truth Decay: Defending Christianity Against the Challenges of Postmodernism (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2000), 9.

2. All Scripture taken from The New American Standard Bible, 1995 Update, (La Habra, Calif.: The Lockman Foundation, 1996).

3. Ted Cabal, "An Introduction to Postmodernity: Where Are We, How Did We Get Here, and Can We Get Home?," The Southern Baptist Journal of Theology 5:2 (Summer 2001): 4.

4. Friedrich Nietzsche, "The Madman," Gay Science 125, in The Portable Nietzsche, trans. Walter Kaufmann (New York: Viking, 1954), 95-96.

5. James W. Sire, The Universe Next Door: A Basic World View Catalog, 3d ed. (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1997), 173.

6. Ibid., 175.

7. Ibid.

8. Gene Edward Veith Jr., Postmodern Times: A Christian Guide to Contemporary Thought and Culture, (Wheaton, Ill.: Crossway Books, 1995), 32-33.

9. David Breese, Seven Men Who Rule the World From the Grave (Oklahoma City: The Southwest Radio Church, 1980), 20-21.

10. Sire, 175-84.

11. Don Matzat, "Apologetics in a Postmodern Age," Issues, Etc. Journal 2, no. 5 (Fall 1997): 7.

12. Postmodernism’s influence in these areas is superbly treated in Dennis McCallum, ed., The Death of Truth (Minneapolis, Minn.: Bethany House Publishers, 1996).

13. One survey of American Evangelical theories of truth revealed that the correspondence theory is most prevalent. See James Emery White, What is Truth: A Comparative Study of the Positions of Cornelius Van Til, Francis Schaeffer, Carl F. H. Henry, Donald Bloesch, and Millard Erickson (Nashville, Tenn.: Broadman and Holman, 1994), 33. Two other recent authors who advocate the correspondence theory of truth are Douglas Groothius, Truth Decay: Defending Christianity Against the Challenges of Postmodernism (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 2000), 60-63; and Millard Erickson, Truth or Consequences: The Promises and Perils of Postmodernism (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 2001), 234.

14. Jack B. Scott, "Amen," in Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, ed. R. Laird Harris, Gleason L. Archer Jr., and Bruce K. Waltke (Chicago, Ill.: Moody, 1990), 1:52.

15. A. C. Thiselton, "Truth," in The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology, 3 vols., ed. Colin Brown (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 1986), 3:889-890.

16. D. M. Crump, "Truth," in Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, eds. Joel B Green, Scot McKnight, and I. Howard Marshall (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 1992), 861.

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Much of what is promised to folks in pews/theater seats these days from pulpits/stages was never promised to New Testament believers. Here’s what we are told they faced.

Reason for Persecution: The Cross separates us from the world

John 15:18-21

“If the world hates you, you know that it hated Me before it hated you. If you were of the world, the world would love its own. Yet because you are not of the world, but I chose you out of the world, therefore the world hates you. Remember the word that I said to you… If they persecuted Me, they will also persecute you… because they do not know Him who sent Me."

John 16:1-4

“These things I have spoken to you, that you should not be made to stumble. They will put you out of the synagogues [today it might be from churches]; yes, the time is coming that whoever kills you will think that he offers God service. And these things they will do to you because they have not known the Father nor Me. But these things I have told you, that when the time comes, you may remember that I told you of them."

John 17:14-18

"I have given them Your word; and the world has hated them because they are not of the world, just as I am not of the world. I do not pray that You should take them out of the world, but that You should keep them from the evil one."  

Reasons for Persecution: compromising leaders

John 12:42-44

"Nevertheless even among the rulers many believed in Him, but because of the Pharisees they did not confess Him, lest they should be put out of the synagogue; for they loved the praise of men more than the praise of God."

Acts 13:48-52

"The word of the Lord was being spread throughout all the region. But the Jews [the religious establishment] stirred up the devout and prominent women and the chief men of the city, raised up persecution against Paul and Barnabas, and expelled them from their region. But…the disciples were filled with joy and with the Holy Spirit.  

Covenant Relationship with Jesus: Sharing in His suffering and promises

Matthew 10:16-20

“Behold, I send you out as sheep in the midst of wolves. Therefore be wise as serpents and harmless as doves. But beware of men, for they will deliver you up to councils and scourge you in their synagogues….But when they deliver you up, do not worry about how or what you should speak. For it will be given to you in that hour what you should speak; for it is not you who speak, but the Spirit of your Father who speaks in you."

Matthew 5:10-12

"Blessed are those who are persecuted for righteousness’ sake, For theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are you when they revile and persecute you, and say all kinds of evil against you falsely for My sake. Rejoice and be exceedingly glad, for great is your reward in heaven…." 

Matthew 20:23

"Jesus answered and said, “You do not know what you ask. Are you able to drink the cup that I am about to drink, and be baptized with the baptism that I am baptized with?” They said to Him, “We are able.”

Luke 22:20

"In the same way, He took the cup after they had eaten saying, "This cup which is poured out for you is the new covenant in My blood."  

Romans 8:16-18

"The Spirit Himself bears witness with our spirit that we are children of God, and if children, then heirs—heirs of God and joint heirs with Christ, if indeed we suffer with Him, that we may also be glorified together. For I consider that the sufferings of this present time are not worthy to be compared with the glory which shall be revealed in us."

Romans 8:35-39

"Who shall separate us from the love of Christ? Shall tribulation, or distress, or persecution, or famine, or nakedness, or peril, or sword? …Yet in all these things we are more than conquerors through Him who loved us. For I am persuaded that neither death nor life, nor angels nor principalities nor powers, nor things present nor things to come, nor height nor depth, nor any other created thing, shall be able to separate us from the love of God which is in Christ Jesus our Lord."

2 Corinthians 4:7-11

"But we have this treasure in earthen vessels, that the excellence of the power may be of God and not of us. We are hard pressed on every side, yet not crushed; we are perplexed, but not in despair; persecuted, but not forsaken; struck down, but not destroyed— always carrying about in the body the dying of the Lord Jesus, that the life of Jesus also may be manifested in our body."

2 Corinthians 12:9-10

"And He said to me, ‘My grace is sufficient for you, for My strength is made perfect in weakness.‘ Therefore most gladly I will rather boast in my infirmities, that the power of Christ may rest upon me. Therefore I take pleasure in infirmities, in reproaches, in needs, in persecutions, in distresses, for Christ’s sake. For when I am weak, then I am strong." 

Prophecy

Matthew 10:21-22

"Now brother will deliver up brother to death, and a father his child; and children will rise up against parents and cause them to be put to death. And you will be hated by all for My name’s sake."

Matthew 24:8-14

"… you will be hated by all nations for My name’s sake... And then many will be offended, will betray one another, and will hate one another. Then many false prophets will rise up and deceive many. And because lawlessness will abound, the love of many will grow cold. But he who endures to the end shall be saved."

Mark 13:11-13

"Now brother will betray brother to death, and a father his child; and children will rise up against parents and cause them to be put to death. And you will be hated by all for My name’s sake. But he who endures to the end shall be saved."

2 Timothy 3:1-5, 10-14

"But know this, that in the last days perilous times will come: For men will be lovers of themselves, lovers of money, boasters, proud, blasphemers, disobedient to parents, unthankful, unholy, unloving, unforgiving, slanderers, without self-control, brutal, despisers of good, traitors, headstrong, haughty, lovers of pleasure rather than lovers of God…. And from such people turn away!

        "…all who desire to live godly in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution. But evil men and impostors will grow worse and worse, deceiving and being deceived. But you must continue in the things which you have learned …"

Luke 21:12-16

"…they will lay hands on you and persecute you. They will deliver you to synagogues and prisons, and you will be brought before kings and governors, and all on account of my name. This will result in your being witnesses to them. But make up your mind not to worry beforehand how you will defend yourselves. For I will give you words and wisdom that none of your adversaries will be able to resist or contradict. You will be betrayed even by parents, brothers, relatives and friends, and they will put some of you to death."

Revelation 17:6

^"I saw the woman, drunk with the blood of the saints and with the blood of the martyrs of Jesus. And when I saw her, I marveled with great amazement."

Found Online.

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There are certain principles that will help us to accurately handle the Word of Truth. These principles are embedded in the scripture itself. We do not need to go beyond the boundaries of the Bible to discover these laws and maxims that are used to determine the meaning of scripture. The Bible interprets itself (scripture interprets scripture).

Principle #1: The Literal Interpretation Principle

We take the Bible at face value. We generally take everyday things in life as literal or at face value. This is a common sense approach.  Even symbols and allegories in the Bible are based on the literal meaning of the scripture; thus the literal meaning is foundational to any symbolic or allegorical meaning.

The golden rule of interpretation is: “When the plain sense of the scripture makes common sense, seek no other sense.” Therefore, take every word at its primary, usual, meaning, unless the facts of the immediate context, studied in the light of related passages and fundamental truths, clearly indicate otherwise.

Principle #2: The Contextual Principle

D.A. Carson has been quoted as saying, "A text without a context is a pretext for a proof text."  By "proof text," of course, Carson means the abuse of a single verse or phrase taken out of context to "prove" a particular view.  The word "text" is derived from the Latin word, which means to “weave.”  The context is that which accompanies the text. The Word of God is a perfect unit.  The scriptures cannot be broken; they all hang together, a perfect unity. We must look and consider the verses immediately before, after, and around the passage. We must consider the book of the Bible and the section of the Bible in which the passage occurs. The Bible must be interpreted within the framework of the Bible.

Principle #3:  The Scripture Interprets Scripture Principle

We may rest assured that God did not reveal an important doctrine in a single, ambiguous passage.  All essential doctrines are fully and clearly explained – either in the immediate context, or somewhere else in the Bible.  This principle is best illustrated by what is known as "topical Bible study."  There are two essential ‘rules’ for applying this principle:  1)  The context of the two passages must be the same; and 2) The plain passage must be used to guide our interpretation of a less clear passage – not the other way around!

Principle #4: The Progressive Revelation Principle

The Word of God is to be understood from the Old Testament to the New Testament as a flower unfolding its petals to the morning sun. God initiated revelation, but He did not reveal His truths all at one time. It was a long and progressive process. Therefore, we must take into account the then-current state of revelation to properly understand a particular passage. For example, an interpretation of a passage in Genesis which assumed a fully delineated view of the "new Covenant" would not be sound.  As the saying goes, “The Old Testament is the New Testament concealed, and the New Testament is the Old Testament revealed.”

Principle #5: The Accommodation Principle

The Bible is to be interpreted in view of the fact that it is an accommodation of Divine truths to human minds: God the infinite communicating with man the finite. The Bible was written in three languages: Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. The Bible was also created in space, in time, and in history so that man could understand it. The truths of God made contact with the human mind at a common point, the Bible, to make God (and, indeed, all of reality) knowable.  We must be careful, then, not to push accommodating language about God and His nature to literal extremes.  God does not have feathers and wings (e.g., Psalms 17:8); nor is He our literal Father in the same sense our earthly father is.

Principle #6: The One Interpretation Principle

Every verse in the Bible has only one interpretation, although that verse may have many applications. The one correct interpretation is that which mirrors the intent of the inspired author.

Principle #7: The Harmony of Scripture Principle

No part of the Bible may be interpreted so as to contradict another part of the Bible.  The Christian presupposes the inerrancy and harmony of Scripture as a necessary result of a perfect Creator God revealing Himself perfectly to Mankind.  Proper application of hermeneutical principles will resolve apparent conflicts.  The key here, of course, is the word "proper," for exegetical fallacies can easily result from a zealous but ill-informed attempt to "save" Scripture from an apparent contradiction.

Principle #8: The Genre Principle

Genre is a literary term having to do with the category or "genus" of  literature under consideration. Proper interpretation must take the general literary category of any given passage into consideration.  Are we dealing with poetry or prose? Are we dealing with history or prophecy? It is important that when we interpret the Word of God, we understand as much as possible the author’s intent.  For example, if the author is writing history – the genre of the Pentateuch of Moses – it would not be proper to interpret a single reference (such as the speech of Balaam’s ass) as a poetic personification, unless a variety of contextual markers compelled us to do so.

Here are some books of the Bible and their respective genres:

Psalms – Poetry
Proverbs – Wise Sayings
Isaiah – History and Prophecy
The Gospels – Biography and History
The Epistles – Teaching and Doctrine
Revelation – Eschatology and Prophecy

Principle #9: The Grammatical Principle

The Bible was originally written in three languages:  Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek.  While we have several highly accurate translations of the Bible in English, all translation involves a certain amount of interpretation on the part of the translator.  Thus, the study of word meanings, grammar, and syntax of the original languages is important for a proper understanding of Scripture. This doesn’t mean that every student of the Bible must learn Hebrew or Greek.  There are a number of tools available – lexicons, Bible dictionaries, detailed exegetical commentaries – that can provide a deeper understanding of crucial passages.

Principle #10:  The Historical Background Principle

The Bible was composed in a specific culture at a particular point in time.  While they are universal in application, the truths in the Bible can most fully be realized only when taking the surrounding culture and history into account.  For example, when Jesus is called "the first fruits" (1 Corinthians 15:20), we may have some understanding of this title from the Old Testament, but a study of Jewish religious practice in the first century can provide a deeper understanding of why Paul chose this title in this passage, as opposed to another title with the same general meaning of "first."

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Discovered Online at For an Answer. The above is part of a much longer and more extensive Introduction to Hermeneutics found here.

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